Danielle

Self-Directed Learning Literature Review

Danielle Riddell

Ball State University

EDAC 634

Dr. Bo Chang

Danielle Riddell

Commented on: Elizabeth Fish

Introduction

Self-directed learning is a broad term with a variety of definitions. A simple way it can be explained is that self-directed learning is learner-led learning. This concept is different than a more traditional view of instruction that was teacher-driven. In self-directed learning, the learner has control over as much of the learning process as possible. Merriam and Brockett (2007) note that self-directed learning has been a part of adult learning for a very long time, but much investigation on the concept started in the 1970’s (p. 136). Goals of self-directed learning and learning models were common themes in the readings that addressed many components of self-directed learning.

General Themes

Goals of self-directed learning

Four main goals for learners participating in self-directed learning were identified in readings (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007; Merriam & Bierema, 2014). One goal of self-directed learning is for the learner to increase their knowledge or skill (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 65). Adults might engage in learning to enhance their skills for their job or to learn more about a topic they find interesting as examples. This is different from other types of learning in which the learner might be required to attend, or be more externally motivated by some means. Thus, this goal typically highlights a high level of intrinsic motivation from the learner.

Another goal of self-directed learning is for adults to become more self-directed in their learning. This involves the learner learning how to learn and having responsibility over their own learning. There is debate on whether, or to what degree, adults are self-directed in their learning. While Knowles originally stated that adults were self-directed by nature, he later clarified learner self-direction on more of a continuum (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 123). Adults’ self-directedness in learning can also be dependent on the content of the information, their prior knowledge on the subject, and dedication to the learning at that time (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 123).

Supporting transformative learning is another goal of self-directed learning. Learners might engage in learning for the purpose of, or the learning might result in, changing thoughts, perspectives, or positions. Transformative learning differs from informational learning. Informational focuses on extending learning, while transformative learning involves changing learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 130).  It involves learners reflecting on experiences and influences to their lives to analyze their impact on their development. When critical reflection is involved, it can support self-directed learning in learners: prompting changes in thinking and knowing.

A fourth goal is to enhance emancipatory learning. This extends beyond individual learning into that of social and political justice (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, pp. 64-65). Merriam, et al. (2007) stated that emancipatory learning includes “not only the examination by learners of the sociopolitical assumptions under which they learn and function but also the incorporation of collective action as an outcome” (p. 108). Allowing learners control over their learning increases their self-directedness and employs emancipatory learning (Brookfield, 1993).

Self-directed learning models

The process of a self-directed learning experience has been described in many ways and can look different ways depending on the context in which learning is taking place. Linear models were some of the earliest self-directed learning models created and as Merriam, et al. (2007) described, are more aligned with traditional instruction methods (p. 129).

There are also a variety of interactive models. These models might best represent learning experiences that adults engage in occur outside of formal instruction. Interactive models take into account the context in which learning occurs (Merriam S. B., 2001, p. 9).

Instructional models of self-directed learning are models created for use by adult educators to facilitate self-directed learning. These models could be used in various types of adult education to support self-directed learning methods by learners. One model examined was Grow’s (1991) Staged Self-Directed Learning (SSDL) model, which is designed to support learner’s self-directedness in learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 117).

Implications

The goals of self-directed learning are important for adult educators to consider. Considering the first goal that adult learners engage in learning to increase their knowledge or skills, adult educators could have a very broad role in this process. One area to consider as adult educators is the motivation of self-directed learners. Much of their motivation for learning is intrinsic, as described in Knowles assumptions of adult learners (Lawson, 2009, p. 29). Conducting needs assessments, formal or informal, can assist in getting to know the learner’s motivations and desires for participating in the learning experience. From that information, we as the educator can facilitate their learning through the experience based on their motivations for being involved.

As adult educators, we can support learners in enhancing their self-directed learning. Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) list that the role for instructors in this goal is to help learners “plan, carry out, and evaluate their own learning” (p. 107). As suggested by MacKeracher (2004), adult educators should assume a role of facilitating rather than more traditional instructing, in order to involve and assist learners in the learning process (p. 49).

As adult educators, we can facilitate transformative learning through self-directed learning. Merriam and Bierema (2013) note “SDL can also inspire transformational learning when critical reflection is a component of the process” (p. 64). By that measure, involving reflection on not only the learning, but also the process in which learning is taking place, can assist learners in their self-directed and transformational learning process. The educator can facilitate that reflection through prompting questions to encourage the learner to reflect on the information learned, how it is impacting them, how it challenges their beliefs, and how that information is being learned.

Adult educators can employ strategies to support emancipatory learning. Brookfield (1993) first suggests that in all parts of the learning process, learners have control (p. 227). As educators, we can be flexible to provide that opportunity for learners to have control over educational decisions. This includes having them identify their goals for learning, and how the learning will occur. Brookfield (1993) also notes the importance of easily accessible resources for learners (p. 235). Adult educators can ensure learners have sufficient resources available, whether physical or online resources, and the means to access them. Taking time to hear from learners to evaluate their resource needs is also a critical step educators can take in ensuring this happens effectively.

The various types of models of self-directed learning can be useful for adult educators to consider in their educational offerings. The different types of models might be more or less useful in different situations, but also with different philosophies of education. Using a more linear approach, educators can collaborate on a plan or learning contract with learners. This would involve supporting the learner in identifying their needs, goals, how those goals will be achieved, and how they will evaluate success (Tennant, 2006, p. 9).

As listed earlier, adopting an educational stance of facilitating rather than instructing can be helpful in supporting self-directed learning, as shown in Brockett and Hiemstra’s Personal Responsibility Orientation (MacKeracher, 2004, p. 49; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 113). Educators can encourage learners’ personal responsibility for their learning by facilitating their learning process: supporting them through goal setting, where to find research, and how to evaluate their own learning (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 113).

Utilizing instructional models can be useful for adult educators to implement self-directed learning into their courses. Grow’s (1991) Staged Self Directed Learning model can be helpful in assisting learners in their own self-directed learning (pp. 126-136). This model provides a way for learners and educators to assess what stage of self-directed learning the learner falls, and offers ways in which the educator can individualize instruction to best assist the learner at their current stage.

Reflection

Highlights

Focusing on the goals of self-directed learning allowed a multi-faceted view of why a learner might engage in self-directed learning. Investigating the various goals attended to various view points and philosophies. Considering the implications for these various views helps educators to have a more diverse consideration of learners and how to best support the individual and the group in their self-directed learning. Investigating the three types of learning models gives a basis to consider how a process of self-directed learning might look. Educators can consider the various models, their educational setting, and their learners to use information from these models to support self-directed learning.

Process

              I found early on that it is easy to get overwhelmed with information in the process of finding relevant literature. I had a list of many different possibilities for themes that left me feeling defeated in where to start. I eventually went back to the ones that stood out to me the most from the textbook and seemed the most comprehensive for a view of self-directed learning. From there, I referenced other literature to deepen and offer different views of those ideas. I outlined the two broad themes and the components of each, then referenced the more relevant pieces of literature as I wrote about each component.

Table 1. Summary of the literature review

 

	General themes	Implications
Theme 1:	Goals of Self-directed learning:
	Engage in self-directed learning to increase knowledge or skills	Utilize needs assessments to address learner’s motivations
	Increase self-directedness in learners	Support learners in planning, implementing, and evaluating learning
	Transformative learning central to self-directed learning	Provide opportunity for critical reflection
	Self-directed learning enhancing emancipatory learning	Allow learner control over learning process, ensure resources accessible to learners
Theme 2:	Self-directed learning models:
	Linear models	Utilize learning contracts with students
	Interactive models	Facilitating learning contracts with students
	Instructional models	Utilize SSDL model to identify learner’s stage, individualize instruction accordingly

References

Brookfield, S. (1993). Self-directed learning, political clarity and the critical practice of adult education. Adult Education Quarterly, 43(4), 227-242.

Grow, G. (1991). Teaching learners to be self-directed: A stage approach. Adult Education Quarterly, 41(3), 125-149.

Lawson, K. (2009). The trainer's handbook. San Francisco, California: Pfeiffer.

MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press Incorporated.

Merriam, S. B. (2001). Andragogy and self-directed learning: Pillars of adult learning theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education(89), 3-13.

Merriam, S. B., & Bierema, L. L. (2014). Adult learning: Linking theory and practice. San Francisco, California: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated.

Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education: An introduction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Tennant, M. (2006). Psychology and adult learning. New York: Routledge.